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53. For extinction to occur, which of the following 49. A student's test score ...

May 5, 2024

Key Concept

Percentile Scores

Explanation

A score at the 42nd percentile means the student scored the same as or higher than 42 percent of her fellow students.

Key Concept

Brain Function and Glucose Metabolism

Explanation

Positron emission tomography (PET) provides information about brain function by monitoring glucose metabolism.

Key Concept

Serial Position Effect

Explanation

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a series is known as the serial position effect.

Key Concept

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Explanation

Carol Gilligan's critique focuses on differences between males and females in the course of moral development.

Key Concept

Classical Conditioning and Extinction

Explanation

For extinction to occur in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus must be presented without the unconditioned stimulus, leading to a loss of the conditioned response.

Key Concept

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

Explanation

This phenomenon involves gaining compliance with a small request as a step toward gaining compliance with a larger request, as illustrated by Sutan's behavior.

Key Concept

Stimulus Generalization

Explanation

The child demonstrates stimulus generalization by applying the learned category of tableware to similar items like forks and knives.

Key Concept

Behaviorism

Explanation

John B. Watson is best known as the founder of behaviorism, a theory of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and disregards internal mental states.

Key Concept

Contingency

Explanation

Robert Rescorla's contingency model of classical conditioning states that conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another, emphasizing the importance of the predictive relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

Key Concept

Behaviorism

Explanation

John B. Watson is best known as the founder of behaviorism, a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

Key Concept

Ethical Codes

Explanation

The American Psychological Association has developed codes of ethics for research with both human participants and animal subjects.

Key Concept

Photoreceptors and Ganglion Cells

Explanation

Photoreceptors relay visual information to the brain through bipolar cells and then ganglion cells.

Key Concept

Bipolar Disorder and Lithium

Explanation

Lithium carbonate has been useful in some instances in the treatment of bipolar disorder.

Key Concept

Babbling

Explanation

Babbling is an example of a prelinguistic event where infants produce sounds that precede the development of language.

Key Concept

Decrease Administration Time

Explanation

Decreasing the amount of time needed to administer the test is not a reason for requiring clearly specified procedures for the administration and scoring of assessment measures.

Key Concept

Predictive Validity

Explanation

Predictive validity is established by demonstrating that there is a correlation between scores on a test and later academic performance.

Key Concept

Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning

Explanation

Robert Rescorla's contingency model states that conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another.

Answer

In the given scenario, soundwave amplitude relates to the loudness of the crash that Steve hears, which triggers his emotional response. Procedural memory may be involved in the children's lack of immediate action to clean up, as they might not have an established routine for such an event. Diffusion of responsibility could explain why none of the children took initiative to address the broken lamp, as they might all assume someone else would take care of it. Dispositional attribution refers to Steve's potential inference that the children's inaction reflects their personal characteristics, such as carelessness or disobedience.

Key Concept

Soundwave Amplitude

Explanation

The amplitude of a soundwave determines its loudness. The loud crash Steve hears is likely to have a high amplitude, which could startle him and contribute to his emotional upset.

Key Concept

Procedural Memory

Explanation

Procedural memory involves the recall of how to perform tasks. The children may not have a procedural memory for dealing with broken objects, leading to inaction.

Key Concept

Diffusion of Responsibility

Explanation

This psychological phenomenon occurs when individuals in a group are less likely to take action because they believe someone else will. This could explain why none of Steve's children responded to the broken lamp.

Key Concept

Dispositional Attribution

Explanation

Steve may attribute his children's inaction to their internal dispositions, such as laziness or defiance, rather than situational factors.

Answer

Steve's immediate decision to turn off the television and assign chores without inquiry suggests an authoritarian parenting style, characterized by strict rules and expectations without much warmth or communication. His irritability throughout the day could be indicative of a high level of neuroticism, a personality trait associated with emotional instability and negative affectivity.

Key Concept

Authoritarian Parenting Style

Explanation

This parenting style is defined by high demands and low responsiveness. Steve's actions reflect this style as he imposes a punishment without discussion or consideration of the children's perspective.

Key Concept

Neuroticism

Explanation

Neuroticism is one of the Big Five personality traits and involves a tendency toward anxiety, moodiness, and emotional instability. Steve's prolonged irritability may be a manifestation of high neuroticism.

Answer

In Part A, Sadie's experiences can be positively related to psychological concepts through Erikson's idea of integrity, her use of crystallized intelligence, the activation of context-dependent memory, and her internal locus of control. In Part B, the actions of the other families can be understood through the lenses of altruism, normative social influence, and modeling.

Key Concept

Erik Erikson's concept of integrity

Explanation

Erikson's final stage of psychosocial development is integrity vs. despair, where older adults reflect on their life. Sadie's sharing of stories and experiences with her family suggests she feels a sense of accomplishment and integrity, which is a positive outcome of this stage.

Key Concept

Crystallized intelligence

Explanation

Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulation of knowledge and skills over time. Sadie's ability to recount detailed stories from the past indicates a strong crystallized intelligence, which is common and beneficial in older age.

Key Concept

Context-dependent memory

Explanation

This type of memory suggests that recall is improved when in the same context as when the memory was formed. Sadie's visits to her old home may trigger vivid memories, allowing her to share rich stories with her family.

Key Concept

Internal locus of control

Explanation

An internal locus of control is the belief that one has control over their life events. Sadie's proactive behavior in visiting her family and helping neighbors indicates she feels empowered and responsible for her actions, which is psychologically beneficial.

Key Concept

Altruism

Explanation

Altruism is the selfless concern for the well-being of others. Sadie's initial act of helping her neighbors is an example of altruistic behavior, which may have inspired similar actions in others.

Key Concept

Normative social influence

Explanation

This concept refers to the influence of others that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them. The other families in the neighborhood may have helped due to the expectation that this is the normative behavior in their community.

Key Concept

Modeling

Explanation

Modeling involves learning through the observation and imitation of others' behaviors. Sadie's actions likely served as a model for the other families, demonstrating how to support community members in need.

Answer

The specific type of relationship between the two variables is a positive correlation. The type of graph used to depict the data in this study is a scatter plot.

Key Concept

Positive Correlation

Explanation

A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well. In this case, as the number of different words parents use increases, the number of different words children use also increases.

Key Concept

Scatter Plot

Explanation

A scatter plot is a type of graph that is used to display and determine the relationship between two numerical variables. Each point on the graph represents the values of both variables for a single observation.

[Part B] Answer

The experimental group in this study is the group of English-speaking parents who received a list of 50 French words to use. To establish cause and effect, Dr. Chisholm must use random assignment of participants to groups and control for extraneous variables.

Key Concept

Experimental Group

Explanation

The experimental group is the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention that is being tested.

Key Concept

Random Assignment and Control of Extraneous Variables

Explanation

Random assignment helps ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group, reducing the likelihood of systematic differences between groups. Controlling for extraneous variables helps to isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, thereby supporting a cause-and-effect conclusion.

[Part C] Answer

The language acquisition device is an innate mechanism or process that allows children to develop language skills. Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement and punishment, which can encourage children to use more words. The zone of proximal development refers to the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others, which can facilitate the learning of new words.

Key Concept

Language Acquisition Device

Explanation

Proposed by Noam Chomsky, the language acquisition device is a theoretical construct in the brain that he believed equips individuals to acquire language naturally.

Key Concept

Operant Conditioning

Explanation

Operant conditioning, a concept developed by B.F. Skinner, is a learning process in which the consequences of a behavior (reinforcement or punishment) affect the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Key Concept

Zone of Proximal Development

Explanation

Introduced by Lev Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Key Concept

Group Polarization

Explanation

Group polarization refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. In this scenario, as the students discuss their perceptions of the teacher, their views become more extreme, leading to an increased level of dislike for the teacher.

Key Concept

Hierarchy of the Nervous System

Explanation

The nervous system is organized hierarchically. The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all neural pathways outside the CNS. The PNS is further divided into the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which controls involuntary functions, and the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary movements. The ANS is subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which have opposing effects on the body's functions. The correct answer reflects this hierarchy, with the PNS encompassing the ANS, which in turn includes the parasympathetic nervous system.

Key Concept

Proximity

Explanation

The scenario where a student assumes two classmates are friends because they are sitting next to each other illustrates the Gestalt principle of proximity, which suggests that objects physically close to each other are perceived as a group.

Key Concept

Latent learning

Explanation

The data for the group that received rewards starting on day 11 reflects latent learning, as the animals showed a rapid improvement in performance once the reward was introduced, suggesting they had learned the task without reinforcement until that point.

Key Concept

No measurable difference in responses

Explanation

By day 15, the graph shows that the average number of errors for both the regularly rewarded animals and those that began receiving rewards on day 11 was roughly the same, indicating no measurable difference between the responses of rewarded and nonrewarded animals.

Key Concept

Longitudinal Design

Explanation

A longitudinal design involves collecting data from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. The bar graph indicates changes in the "Quality of Friendship" over three months, suggesting that the same friendships were likely assessed at multiple points in time, which aligns with a longitudinal study design.

Key Concept

Constructive memory

Explanation

Memory is not a perfect recording of events; it is constructive and can be influenced by later experiences and information, leading to altered recollections.

Key Concept

Interplay of Smell and Taste

Explanation

The flavor of food is a combination of taste and smell. Losing the sense of smell can significantly diminish the perception of a food's flavor.

Key Concept

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Explanation

Roberto's loss of interest in classes and social activities after moving to a colder, less sunny environment suggests Major Depressive Disorder with Seasonal Pattern, commonly known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), which is related to changes in seasons.

Key Concept

Divergent Thinking

Explanation

Divergent thinking refers to the ability to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions in an effort to find one that works. Julian's project of making bird feeders out of empty drink containers is an example of divergent thinking because it involves repurposing an item in a novel way, which indicates thinking outside of traditional use patterns.

Key Concept

Experimental Research

Explanation

A true experiment involves manipulation of an independent variable to determine its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for extraneous variables. The question about caffeine's effect on puzzle completion time is most suitable for a true experiment because it allows for direct manipulation of the independent variable (caffeine) and measurement of the dependent variable (time spent on a puzzle).

Key Concept

Inattentional blindness

Explanation

Inattentional blindness refers to the failure to notice a fully visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task, event, or object.

Key Concept

Social anxiety disorder

Explanation

Cindy's behavior of avoiding restaurants due to fear of negative evaluation by others is indicative of social anxiety disorder, which is characterized by significant anxiety and discomfort in social situations where the person feels they may be judged or scrutinized.

Key Concept

Perceptual set

Explanation

Perceptual set refers to the expectation of a person to see or perceive something based on prior experience or preconceptions, which can influence how new stimuli are interpreted. In the study described, the type of music played may create a perceptual set that influences how participants rate the emotional content of the faces.

Key Concept

Motor Development Sequence

Explanation

Babies across the world typically develop motor skills in a predictable sequence, although the exact timing can vary. This sequence often starts with head control, then sitting, crawling, standing, and walking.

Key Concept

General Adaptation Syndrome

Explanation

According to Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), prolonged stress leads to three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. In the exhaustion stage, the body's resources are depleted, leading to a weakened immune system and increased vulnerability to illness. Heidi's symptoms suggest she is in the exhaustion stage.

Key Concept

Skewness in Distributions

Explanation

A histogram with a longer tail on the left side indicates a negative skew, meaning that the bulk of the data is concentrated on the right.

Key Concept

Proactive Interference

Explanation

Proactive interference occurs when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information. In this scenario, Zayden's difficulty in remembering his tenth-grade schedule due to confusion with his ninth-grade schedule is a classic example of proactive interference.

Key Concept

Schachter two-factor theory

Explanation

Dr. Handler's study involves participants interpreting their physiological arousal (riding a roller coaster or sitting in a room) before rating their emotional experience (test anxiety), which aligns with the Schachter two-factor theory of emotion that posits emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labels.

Key Concept

Operant Conditioning

Explanation

Destiny is using reinforcement to increase the likelihood that her brother will engage in the desired behavior of doing his homework. This is a principle of operant conditioning, a behavioral approach.

Key Concept

Arousal Theory

Explanation

Arousal theory suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for peak performance; too little or too much arousal can negatively impact performance. Jessica's experiences reflect this, as she performed poorly when she was under-aroused in the first race, over-aroused in the second, and at an optimal arousal level in the third after using relaxation techniques.

Key Concept

Deindividuation

Explanation

Deindividuation is a psychological state where an individual loses self-awareness and self-restraint, often leading to disinhibited and impulsive behavior, especially in group settings that provide anonymity. Dr. Draper's study is likely examining how wearing identical costumes and masks might lead to a greater willingness to perform uncomfortable tasks due to reduced personal accountability and increased conformity to group norms.

Key Concept

Mere-exposure effect

Explanation

The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. In this experiment, the rats spent more time on the side of the cage playing the music they were raised with, indicating a preference for the familiar stimuli, which supports the mere-exposure effect.

Key Concept

Experimenter Bias

Explanation

Experimenter bias occurs when researchers' expectations influence the outcome of a study. A double-blind procedure, where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment, is an effective way to prevent this bias.

Key Concept

Fundamental attribution error

Explanation

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency for people to overemphasize dispositional or personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while underestimating the influence of situational factors. In the described study, participants likely rated the author's belief in the benefits or disadvantages of pet ownership based on the content of the essays, attributing the author's assigned position to their personal beliefs, despite knowing the position was randomly assigned. This demonstrates the fundamental attribution error because participants disregarded the situational factor (the random assignment) in favor of a dispositional explanation (the author's personal belief).

Key Concept

Classical Conditioning

Explanation

Classical conditioning involves learning through association, where a neutral stimulus (the model) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (the attractiveness) that naturally produces an unconditioned response (desire). Over time, the neutral stimulus alone can elicit a conditioned response (making the chips more desirable), which is the essence of classical conditioning as demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.

Key Concept

Deep Processing

Explanation

Deep processing refers to a more meaningful analysis (e.g., images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. In the context of learning a song in a foreign language, focusing on the meaning of the words rather than just the sounds encourages semantic encoding, which is a form of deep processing.

Key Concept

Initial Charm and Subsequent Dislike

Explanation

Research indicates that while narcissists may be perceived as charming and likable at first, over time, as their need for admiration and attention becomes apparent, others tend to react negatively to them.

Key Concept

Metacognitive Awareness

Explanation

Realizing one does not know an answer demonstrates metacognitive awareness, which involves recognizing one's own cognitive processes and understanding one's knowledge and abilities.

Key Concept

Independent Variable

Explanation

The independent variable is the condition or factor that is manipulated by the researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable. In this study, the learning method (visual memory or auditory memory) is the independent variable because it is what the researcher is changing to observe the effect on recall accuracy, which is the dependent variable.

Key Concept

Age-related sensitivity to pain

Explanation

Research suggests that pain threshold may increase with age, meaning older adults may be less sensitive to pain compared to younger individuals.

Key Concept

Difference threshold

Explanation

The difference threshold, also known as the just noticeable difference (jnd), is the minimum amount by which stimulus intensity must be changed in order to produce a noticeable variation in sensory experience. In this scenario, the roommate who complains is experiencing a change in temperature that exceeds her difference threshold, while the roommate who does not notice is experiencing a change that does not surpass her difference threshold.

Key Concept

Social facilitation

Explanation

Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. The graph indicates that as the audience size increases, Abraham's performance improves, which is consistent with the concept of social facilitation.

Key Concept

Operational Definition

Explanation

Using college GPAs as a measure for academic achievement is an example of operationalizing a variable, which means defining it in terms of the specific procedures used to measure or manipulate it.

Key Concept

Thyroid gland and growth

Explanation

The thyroid gland regulates metabolism and affects growth and development in the body. Infections leading to inflammation and an overactive immune system can cause the thyroid to enlarge, a condition known as goiter, which can make the body unusually large.

Key Concept

Expectancy effects

Explanation

Mr. Jones's interpretations of Connor's behaviors were influenced by his expectations, which were based on the incorrect information that Connor had ADHD. This is an example of expectancy effects, where a person's expectations can shape their perception and interpretation of others' behaviors.

Key Concept

Bipolar Disorder and Lithium

Explanation

Marla's behavior suggests a possible manic episode, often associated with Bipolar Disorder. Lithium is a mood stabilizer commonly used to treat Bipolar Disorder